The Great Depression :: History

The Great slackThe Great stamp is comparable to Lennie and Georges life. I would alike to give a comparison of George Milton and Lennie Small to the Great Depression. The time that this story took place was during the Great Depression. John Steinbeck captured the reality of this most difficult time. During the Great Depression hoi polloi needed to travel together to share chores and duties to make a living until something better came along. That is the way George and Lennie traveled. They traveled together to take care of severally other but George took care of Lennie the most, because he was always getting in trouble. You do bad things and I got to get you out. (Of Mice and Men p.11). During the Great Depression capital was very scarce. You had to travel around to find a job in order to make bills to survive. Lennie and George were in that type of predicament. Keeping enough money until the next job was difficult because prices were rising during the Great Depression and you had to budget your money. During this depression most people worked on farms because after the stock market crashed people realized that the reason the stock market crashed was because farms were not producing enough impregnables. People started to work on farms more to help everyone. Lennie and George worked for ranches and also in the fields. Hes a good skinner. He can rassel grain bags, drive a cultivator. He can do anything. (Of Mice and Men p.22). If you really look closely, George and Lennies way of life and the Great Depression have a good deal in common. George and Lennie were outcasts in life. George Milton was small in size and a very smart man compared to Lennie. He was rattling only of average intelligence. Lennie Small was a large person and very retarded. Since Lennie was so retarded he did not grasp the things that were happening around him. For example, if individual became upset about anything he would grab them and hold and squeeze until they stopped moving. Len nie would accidentally harm them and that is how he got inck smoke into the environment constantly. This disgusting smog stains buildings, covers trees, and hovers supra many of our major city in large masses. Automobiles also contain some fluids that can be deadly to us and our wildlife. We often hear of gas spills by tanker trucks or by ships, both of which are meant to supply our automobiles with fuel.

Climate of Egypt Essay -- Cairo Egypt Africa Environment Essays Papers

Climate of EgyptCairo, Egypt, located in Northern Africa between Libya and the Gaza Strip, is on the eastern bank of the Nile River. Egypt, which is comprised of 97% desert, experiences kookie winters and hot summers, with an average temperature of 71.1 degrees Fahrenheit (21.7 degrees Celsius), and receives only 1inch of rainfall a year. With only 5% of the land occupied, Egypt has a population of approximately 69,536,644 inhabitants. Cairo, the largest city in Africa, as well as the capital of Egypt, is home to over 15 million people. Its overpopulation has led to many changes within the country which have had a great answer on the society and environment of Egypt.The desert climate region has experienced many changes throughout history, and there is a drying trend in the climate. Because the Egyptians were among the first to evince data, Cairo has a well documented history of its society, and in particular, of the Nile River. Historically, Nile River played a large role in Egyp t. The Nile has served, both historically and still at the present time, as a method of transportation and has dictated the agriculture and water supply. However, with global warming, the drying trend of the climate, and a boom of industrialization, the nature of the Nile and the Nile Valley has changed dramatically. development Chad as an example, Lamb notes the drying changes in the Sahara Desert, and the demonstrate of there once being a population of animalsThis assemblage of artistic evidence clearly implies that there were plentiful moist places in the Sahara in those times to sustain life, so that animals and men could roam about, and cross, what is now the worlds largest desert. This conclusion is supported by evidence of the dated forme... ...a history of environmental legislation, the past few years has brought a wave of new policies. In 1994, Law 4, for the preservation of the environment, was passed. Most importantly, from Law 4 two new programs dedicated to improvin g Egyptian environment were created the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) works to institute plans for environmental management and shape environmental standards and the Environmental Protection Fund, which grants funs to solve solid waste management issues. The greatest environmental concerns facing Egypt today are air pollution, carbon emissions, nothing consumption, and the preservation of the coastal regions. In order to combat these problems, Egypt is working, in conjunction with legislation, to educate its inhabitants on the environmental concerns, and the individuals responsibility to preserving natural resources.

Generation and Culture in Doce cuentos peregrinos Essay -- Garcia Marq

An spacious sea serpent nailed by the neck to the door frame is also nailed at the beginning of Gabriel Garcia Marquezs El verano felz de la Seora Forbes from his novel Doce cuentos peregrinos. This gyp story is an eloquent representation of the unconscious state of mind of dominance in which the result of previous concepts of life and costumes achieved be just vague figures move to make up a non-abstract drawing that represent power. Generations and cultures are being confronted, property of a dense ambient in which two different address of applying the rules of society provoke an ironic reaction of uprising that apply to a macrocosm. The gentle means Miss Forbess summer of happiness. The time of the year, the island surrounded by the ghastly blue sea, together with Miss Forbess summer, narrate the environment in which the story is developed. The theater is very sm all(prenominal), and this helps to increase the tension that prevails from the start of the story to the end. There is a lot of repression. Many of the things are overwhelmed with rightness to agree with the normal kind of mortal that is used to live in an open society free of all kinds of discrepancies and orthodox methods of life. Negra y fosforecente (189) is the first impression that the story gives to the reader. This anticipates the darkness and at the comparable time vivid aspect that the story is going to have by describing the sea serpent on the door. The intense terror of seeing the animal crucificado (189) turns to a bigger matter that is entitled as the beginning of the long voyage of hell that society is living in. The younger kid thinks that the moray Tena ojos de gente (191). He was still frightened he saw the antecedents and consequenc... ...en once the rebellion took place. A courageous society takes all responsibility from its back whenever a study level goes down. As Garcia Marquez suggests, this determines a stabilized level of power where distinctions are to be c reated again to be taken to a macrocosm, and prove that rules, even in the highest level of hierarchy may be mistaken or non proper to the generation or culture that the society is living in. Works Cited and ConsultedGarcia Marquez, Gabriel. Doce cuentos peregrinos. Buenos Aires pillar Sudamericana, 1992. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Strange Pilgrims Twelve stories by Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Trans. Edith Grossman. New York Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Molinario, Nina L. Foucault, feminism and power adaptation Esther Tusquets. Lewisburg Bucknell University Press London Cranbury, NJ Associated University Presses, 1991. Generation and Culture in Doce cuentos peregrinos Essay -- Garcia Marq An enormous sea serpent nailed by the neck to the door frame is also nailed at the beginning of Gabriel Garcia Marquezs El verano felz de la Seora Forbes from his novel Doce cuentos peregrinos. This short story is an eloquent representation of the unconscious state of mind of dominanc e in which the result of previous concepts of life and costumes achieved are just vague figures trying to make up a non-abstract drawing that represent power. Generations and cultures are being confronted, characteristic of a dense ambient in which two different manners of applying the rules of society provoke an ironic reaction of rebellion that apply to a macrocosm. The title means Miss Forbess summer of happiness. The time of the year, the island surrounded by the dark blue sea, together with Miss Forbess summer, narrate the environment in which the story is developed. The house is very small, and this helps to increase the tension that prevails from the start of the story to the end. There is a lot of repression. Many of the things are overwhelmed with rightness to agree with the normal kind of person that is used to live in an open society free of all kinds of discrepancies and orthodox methods of life. Negra y fosforecente (189) is the first impression that the story gives to the reader. This anticipates the darkness and at the same time vivid aspect that the story is going to have by describing the sea serpent on the door. The intense terror of seeing the animal crucificado (189) turns to a bigger matter that is entitled as the beginning of the long journey of hell that society is living in. The younger kid thinks that the moray Tena ojos de gente (191). He was still frightened he saw the antecedents and consequenc... ...en once the rebellion took place. A courageous society takes all responsibility from its back whenever a major level goes down. As Garcia Marquez suggests, this determines a stabilized level of power where distinctions are to be created again to be taken to a macrocosm, and prove that rules, even in the highest level of hierarchy may be mistaken or not proper to the generation or culture that the society is living in. Works Cited and ConsultedGarcia Marquez, Gabriel. Doce cuentos peregrinos. Buenos Aires Editorial Sudamericana, 199 2. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Strange Pilgrims Twelve stories by Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Trans. Edith Grossman. New York Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Molinario, Nina L. Foucault, feminism and power Reading Esther Tusquets. Lewisburg Bucknell University Press London Cranbury, NJ Associated University Presses, 1991.

Thoreau vs. Hawthorne :: comparison compare contrast essays

Thoreau vs. Hawthorne   Personal Lives Henry David Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts on July 12, 1817 and died there peacefully on May 6, 1862. He was described by Hawthorne as ugly as sin. He loved nature, and his constant preoccupation was exploring the woods and ponds making detailed observations of plants and creatures. Henry led a singular life, never marrying, and marching to his own drummer, as he put it. From 1845 to 1847, he lived alone in a sm on the whole cabin he make by Walden Pond near Concord. He described this unique experiment in natural living in Walden criticizing those who lead lives of quiet desperation with all the trappings of customary society. His personal independence and straightforward manner was harsh to some people, and he gained very little recognition during his lifetime.   Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4, 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, to a family that had been prominent in the area since colonial times. Hawthor ne was very handsome and never had problems with looks. When Nathaniel was four, his father died on a voyage in Surinam. Hawthorne was extremely implicated with traditional values. From 1836 to 1844, the Boston-centered Transcendentalist movement, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson, was an important force in New England intellectual circles. The Transcendentalists believed that human existence transcended the sensory realm, and rejected formalism in favour of individual responsibility. The Scarlet Letter shows some Transcendentalist influence, including a belief in individual choice and consequence, and an emphasis on symbolism.   Henry David Thoreau and Nathaniel Hawthorne are different and alike in many ways. Thoreau was a man that never married and believes each man should march to his own drum or go his own pace. Nathaniel Hawthorne on the other hand, was married very quickly. Thoreau was described as ugly as sin with a long nose and queer mouth. Hawthorne was handso me on the outside, only when depressed on the inside. Hawthorne was a Dark Romantic, while Thoreau was a Transcendentalist. Dominant Traits Henry David Thoreaus dominant trait was being a Transcendentalist. Transcendentalism is the belief insist the existence of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the experimental and scientific and is knowable through instinct.

Environmental Conflicts In Literature :: essays research papers

Conflicts are a very prominent element in literature. If you were to look up the dictionary definition of interlocking, you would find that it is a struggle, controversy, or fight. Conflicts can take many forms, and each has its own place in literature. Environmental conflicts are certainly one of the to a greater extent recognized and appreciated types of conflicts. They are easy to identify, understand, and analyze. An environment can be described as ones surroundings, so logically, an environmental conflict is a conflict with ones surroundings. Environmental conflicts pit man against a greater power, and it is unsure what will happen next.Throughout good literature, a vast host of environmental conflicts can be found. Let us take a look at Leiningen Versus the Ants, by Carl Stephenson. In this story, environmental conflicts are exceedingly prevalent. In fact, the entire story is built upon the act of God that Leiningen faces. A twenty square mile army of ants threatens Leininge ns plantation and his life. The ants prove to be a formidable opponent, even for a man of such cunning as Leiningen. They represent the power and unpredictability of naturea perfect example of an environmental conflict.Not all environmental conflicts are huge, apocalyptic, catastrophic events. They can be as simple or commonplace as a tree falling. such is the case in The Interlopers, by Saki. Saki recognizes the power of nature, and makes use of something so unimportant as a fallen tree to trap Ulrich and Georg beneath it, and dramatically alter the course of the entire story. Not only that, but at the end of the story, Saki uses wolves to change the direction of the story once more, and this time he creates some irony as well. In almost all cases, the environment does triumph over man in some way or other. To take in a Fire, by Jack London is a prime example of this happening to a large extent. A man and his dog are anomic in the wilderness at sub-zero temperatures, and he is not only involved in an environmental conflict, but a struggle to live. Eventually the man dies of hypothermia. Again, this is another instance that illustrates the power that nature has over us.

Environmental Conflicts In Literature :: essays research papers

Conflicts are a very prominent element in literature. If you were to look up the dictionary definition of conflict, you would find that it is a struggle, controversy, or fight. Conflicts usher out take many forms, and each has its own place in literature. Environmental conflicts are certainly single of the more recognized and comprehended types of conflicts. They are easy to identify, understand, and analyze. An environment can be described as ones surroundings, so logic all in ally, an environmental conflict is a conflict with ones surroundings. Environmental conflicts pit man against a greater causation, and it is unsure what will happen next.Throughout good literature, a vast array of environmental conflicts can be found. Let us take a look at Leiningen Versus the Ants, by Carl Stephenson. In this news report, environmental conflicts are exceedingly prevalent. In fact, the entire story is built upon the act of God that Leiningen faces. A twenty square mile army of ants threa tens Leiningens plantation and his life. The ants prove to be a formidable opponent, tear down for a man of such cunning as Leiningen. They represent the power and unpredictability of naturea perfect example of an environmental conflict.Not all environmental conflicts are huge, apocalyptic, catastrophic events. They can be as simple or commonplace as a tree falling. Such is the case in The Interlopers, by Saki. Saki recognizes the power of nature, and makes use of something so unimportant as a fallen tree to trap Ulrich and Georg beneath it, and dramatically alter the bloodline of the entire story. Not only that, but at the end of the story, Saki uses wolves to change the direction of the story once more, and this time he creates some caustic remark as well. In almost all cases, the environment does triumph over man in some way or another. To Build a Fire, by Jack London is a prime example of this happening to a large extent. A man and his dog are lost in the wilderness at sub-z ero temperatures, and he is not only involved in an environmental conflict, but a struggle to live. Eventually the man dies of hypothermia. Again, this is another instance that illustrates the power that nature has over us.

The Challenges in Learning Foreign Language

Georgiy Sichinava Peter Starr Writing 115 10/11/2012 The challenges in learning alien language The case of being a foreigner while improving your skills is very common in the contemporary society. A lot more people ar crossing the border of the theatre country either to advance their language skills or to get a better education in a certain sphere. Being the part of this reality, I recently moved to the United States to earn a degree. Thus the situation shown in the David Sedaris essay Me Talk beauteous One Day is very skinny to me. As a matter of fact, I personally know the feelings that author designateed in his essay.Obviously there are plenty of other things that David & I allow in common. To tell the truth, I suppose each foreign student faces al roughly the same challenges. The biggest angiotensin-converting enzyme that a foreigner faces is loss in a way of speaking and peoples behavior. As a result, international students have problems in interpreting the language and understanding the culture. My fear and discomfort crept beyond the borders of my classroom and accompanied me out onto the wide boulevards, where, no matter how hard I tried, there was no escaping the feeling of terror I felt whenever anyone asked me a question. (Sedaris 298). In these words David illustrated the hardship of being in a foreign community. Learning second language seems really hard at the beginning. After a while it is getting much easier, but at a certain point you feel that this is it and you will non be able to advance your skills anymore. everyplace time, it became impossible to believe that any of us would ever improve. (Cedaris 299). Even a dedicated person wish well David had pessimistic thoughts about his improvements. There is a difference between listening to/hearing the foreign language and speaking the one.When you are speaking a foreign language you dirty dog only rely on the words you know. However remembering these words as well as appropriately u sing them is non an easy task. When you are listening/hearing you sens with understanding the words and their meaning. The poorer your vocabulary is, the more likely you are to face the difficulties in understanding the words and thus the meaning of the message. Speaking a foreign language is a great achievement. It requires a long process full of obstacles along the way. A person should learn a lot of words. However this does not guarantee that he will start speaking immediately.As a rule a person has a language barrier. David had that problem. Understanding doesnt mean that you can suddenly speak the language (Sedaris 299). I had exactly the same experience. Back home I thought I was good at speaking English. just now here in the United States the first day of my classes changed my opinion. I found it really hard to understand what people around me were saying. I felt like a black sheep. Even when I understood something, I could not respond correctly just because my vocabulary was far from being enough to express everything I wanted.Besides difficulties with the language, foreigners deal with challenging situations in understanding the culture and the ways local people are. Expectations and the reality do not coincide in or so cases. As an added discomfort, they were all young, attractive, and well dressed, causing me to feel not unlike PA Kettle trapped backstage after a fashion show. (Sedaris 295). As for me, I found that people think completely different here. The way people think about life, priorities, humor and everything else is very different. The first day of prepare is never easy.Even for local students going to a new school for the first time is challenging. And when you do it in a foreign country, you are beyond nervous. This is authentic about all international students. Obviously David was very nervous on his first day of school. The first day of class was nerve-racking because I knew Id be expected to perform. (Sedaris 295). Unlike Dav id I did not have any expectations about my first class. I was simply nervous and I could not sleep the whole night. It is very common for a foreign student, who is unable to easily express his opinion out loud, to do lots of thinking of his own. I scrambled to think of an answer to what had obviously become a trick question. How often are you asked what you love in this world? More important, how often are you asked and then publicly ridiculed for your answer? I recalled my mother (Sedaris 297) Like David, I did/do lots of analyzing during my classes. I was/am trying to digest everybodys messages, analyse them with my own experience. After reading the essay I do believe that the students attitude toward teacher was extremely negative. She was the only person who made her students hate her because of er taunts from the first day. Although the teacher was not the nicest person in the world and caused lots of confusion and scared students, the author admitted that teachers behavior m otivated him to determine harder and achieve better results. Refusing to stay convicted on the teachers charges of laziness, Id spend four hours a night on my homework, working even so longer whenever we were assigned an essay (Sedaris 298). This proves that David had a desire to advance his language, in order to easily argue with his teacher.In conclusion, I would say that the essay Me Talk Pretty One Day by David Sedaris is a must read legend for those who are planning to study abroad. David made a really funny story that shows all the positive and negative aspects of being a foreigner. In fact, being an international student is a really challenging job. But it also the most amazing thing ever happened to me. You rediscover the world, get to know lots of new people and learn new culture. All those eventually help one become stronger and capable of managing the difficult situations.

Prevention of Healthcare Associated Infections in Developing

Introduction Developing countries are norm all in ally defined as those lacking the level of nationwide industrialization, infrastructure and technological advances normally found in Western Europe and North America. The vast majority of countries in Africa, Asia, Central & south-central America, Oceania and the Middle East fall in this maturation category and frequently gift addition challenges in terms of lower levels of literacy and standards of living. Nevertheless, inwardly this broad group, in that respect are various sub-categories, each having different characteristics as well as economic strengths.Indeed some are relatively wealthy oil exporting nations or newly industrializing ball economies a considerable number are middle income countries. At the end of the development scale lie around fifty actually poor nations with predominantly agricultural economies, which tend to be heavily dependent on external aid. From a medical perspective, legion(predicate) ontogeny countries are oft characterised by significant health and hygienics issues. Indeed it has been estimated that more than 1 billion inhabitants in these countries do not have access to safe piddle and regular(a) less to basic sanitation (1).Around 1. 5 million children in the develop world die per year diarrhoea is responsible for more than 80% of these deaths (2). One of the reasons for this state of affairs is the low expenditure and budgetary allocation within the poorer countries of the world towards health. Indeed the proportion of annual expenditure for health colligate scuttles in many developing countries is often less than 5% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), sometimes less than 0. 1% (3). Healthcare associated transmission systems in developing countriesUnlike more affluent countries, infectious diseases continue to pose a heavy burden of morbidity as well as mortality in developing nations (4). Amongst the more important disease entities are a wide range of respirator y diseases including tuberculosis, various gastrointestinal infections, AIDS and human immunodeficiency virus plus a kick of parasitic infestations of which malaria is the most significant. However this situation is not limited to ambulatory settings and is equally relevant within health care institutions.Deficient infrastructures, rudimentary equipment and a poor prize of care contribute towards incidences of nosocomial infections which have been estimated to be between 2-6 times higher than those in developed nations (5). In many instances, much(prenominal) figures are often guesstimates because surveillance systems are often either non lively or else unreliable. However, the limited studies on preponderance of healthcare associated infections in some developing countries in the world suggest that up to 40% of these are probably preventable (5).This situation appears to particularly severe within intensive care settings where up to 60 to 90 infections per 1000 care-days have b een reported excess mortality rates in more severe infections such(prenominal) as blood stream and lower respiratory infections approaches 25% in adults and more than 50% in neonates (6). The challenges of infection in healthcare facilities within developing nations is similarly of a wider spectrum than that normally found in equivalent hospitals in the western world.Numerous publications have highlighted the frequency by which normally community infections, such as cholera, measles and enteric pathogens, spread nosocomially within such institutions (7, 8). In many instances outbreaks are traceable to an index case who would have been inappropriately managed in a background of overcrowding and limited hospital hygiene. Similar cases of infection have also been reported in the case of respiratory infections including measles (9).Tuberculosis transmittal in healthcare facilities is a major occurrence in many African countries as well as parts of Asia and Latin America (10). In many instances this disease is strongly related to the rise of HIV within these same geographical regions and is not uncommonly complicated by increasing prevalence of multi drug resistant mycobacteria. Blood borne infections are not restricted to HIV alone. Hepatitis B remains a major nosocomial pathogen in many hospitals within the developing world (11).More dramatic and life threatening have been outbreaks of viral haemorrhagic fevers in institutions within several countries in the African continent (12). Hospitals are also liable to healthcare associated infection caused by more established pathogens which, just like in their western counterparts, can carry the additional burden of antimicrobial enemy (4). Unfortunately data on the prevalence of resistance in nosocomial pathogens is poorly documented in the developing world. However recent publications suggest that this may be even more common than in developed countries.Recent publications from the Mediterranean region have highl ighted proportions of meticillin resistance Staphylococcus aureus to exceed 50% in several countries in the Middle East with resistance to tertiary generation cephalosporins in E. coli exceeding 70% in some participating hospitals (13). in that respect may be diverse and often complex backgrounds to this epidemiological situation. Factors facilitating transmission and management of nosocomial infections The infrastructure of healthcare facilities in some of the poorer nations often lacks basic requirements for the prevention of transmission of infectious diseases.Inadequate or unsafe water add on together with lack of imagerys or equipment for affective environmental cleaning is often compounded by significant overcrowding due to inadequate beds to cope with demand (14). There is often lack of strategic direction as well as effectual planning for healthcare deli rattling at both national as well as topical anaesthetic levels. A functional sterilisation department is by no mean s a standard occurrence in any hospital, even in the larger urban institutions.Other areas of concern include poor awareness or knowledge about communicable disease transmission amongst healthcare workers and lack of commitment within senior management (15). This is particularly relevant in developing countries where nurses, doctors and patients are often unaware of the importance of infection restraint and its relevance to safe healthcare (16). Medical practitioners may have a tendency to be heavily committed towards individual patients and disinclined to think of them in groups, a concept which is the antithesis of basic infection prevention and control (17).They are often unaware of risks of nosocomial infections, attributing such possible developments to be natural or inevitable (18). On the other hand, nurses have more intimate contact with patients and are skilful to take care of patients in groups. Although this increases the possible to serve as sources of cross-transmiss ion, nurses are likely to more positive towards infection control policies. However this is hindered by the comparatively lower status offer uped to nurses in the developing world and also complicated by a gender bias in environments where emancipation of women has been slow.Attitudes of senior medical staff may further compound the problem finished personality clashes, resistance to change or improvement as well as reluctance to work in tandem with other health professionals. Non existent litigation further accentuates lack of accountability at various levels. Furthermore, many patients have limited expectations, already regarding themselves fortunate to have any sort of institutional care and as a result accept a significant degree of morbidity as part of their hospital stay. It must be punctuate that even in the poorer countries, this set of circumstances is by no means universal in all hospitals.It is not uncommon that, even where most of the hospitals in a country lack all these basic requirements, individual institutions (often either cloak-and-dagger or NGO managed) would be in a position to offer healthcare as well as infection control standards of the highest quality. However it would only be a small minority of patients, often coming from a more affluent background, that would be able to benefit from them. The risks of infection in hospitals within the developing world are not only restricted to the patients who collect care within them.Occupational health is an equally low priority in many of these facilities and, as a result, it is not uncommon for healthcare workers to also be exposed and become infected by pathogens causing healthcare associated infections, including viral hepatitis, HIV and tuberculosis. In such limited resource environments and in situations where medical do is biased towards intervention rather than prevention, it is not surprising that basic infection control programmes are often lacking, particularly in smaller hospit als in homespun areas (18).Even within larger urban facilities, infection control teams, composed of both an infection control nurse as well as doctor, who have been trained and have managerial backup are very much in the minority. They are often restricted to academic institutions, heavily funded government or private tertiary care units. Even where present, these teams tend to encounter numerous logistical obstacles including lack administrative, clerical and IT support. Infection control output therefore tends to be importantly variable policies and procedures are either absent or lack consultation, evidence base or suitable addressing f local needs. Healthcare professionals also face significant challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious disease (4). Diagnostic facilities are often lacking. Laboratories may be absent or limited as a result of inadequate resources of both a material as well as human resource nature. Trained laboratory scientists are very much in the minority whereas the implementation of quality control programs to ensure validity in the laboratorys output is not viewed as a crucial.This situation is worsened by possible lack of confidence in the laboratory from clinicians who would prefer to undertake treatment blindly, based only on clinical judgement or recommendations from other countries rather than local epidemiology. One reason for this is the lack of feedback of local resistance data (20). This risks inappropriate treatment which would not mighty cover local resistance prevalence patterns. Another major factor hindering the treatment of infectious disease is the presence of poor quality antimicrobials, even counterfeit, with little or no active ingredient within the formulation (21).Addressing the challenge It is therefore clear that in order to improve the effectiveness of infection control in many developing countries, a multifactorial set of initiatives needs to be undertaken that are both feasible as well as achie vable in this background of economical and social deficits (15). It is essential that infection control teams increase their presence within hospitals in these regions. These key personnel must be provided with the necessary training as well as administrative support and facilities in order to deliver the required services.Such teams would be able to hear the major challenges and assess relevant risks through tailored surveillance programmes. Surveillance constitutes a challenge in such environments since it is often time consuming and resource dependent (22). In addition it requires a reasonable level of laboratory support. Nevertheless it is possible using simplified definitions of healthcare associated infections, as suggested by the cosmos Health Organisation, to achieve a surveillance programme even with very limited resources (23).Such initiatives need to concentrate on the more serious infections and document their dissemble in the respective facility. Trained infection con trol personnel would also be appropriate drivers to eliminate wasteful practices which siphon resources away from truly effective practices. Dogmas include routine use of disinfectants for environmental cleaning, use of unnecessary personal protective equipment such as overshoes, excessive waste management procedures which treat all waste generated in the hospital as infectious.Infection Control teams will be able to spearhead cost-effective interventions based on training of healthcare workers to fall out with relevant infection control measures related to standard precautions, isolation together with occupational health and safety. It is possible to achieve significant reduction in the prevalence of healthcare associated infections through low cost measures interventions aimed at preventing cross transmission of infection are particularly effective. There is no doubt that one of the most cost effective interventions in limited resource environments is improved compliance with han d hygiene.The dry land Health Organisation has indeed designated improvement of health hygiene within healthcare facilities worldwide as a priority and chose this topic for its first Global Patient Safety Challenge under the banner neat Care is Safer Care (6). A comprehensive set of tools have been tested worldwide in pilot hospitals, the majority of which were in developing countries. The emphasis of this initiative focuses on the availability and utilisation of alcohol hand rub for patient contact situations where hands are physically clean.This is made possible through local manufacture of inexpensive, good quality products according to a validated formula. A multimodal strategy requires these alcohol hand rub containers to be available at top dog of care and for the staff of the hospital to receive adequate training and education in their use. Hand hygiene practices are monitored and feedback on performance regularly provided to the users. Reminders in the workplace sensitise awareness and belief amongst healthcare workers in general.Infection prevention and control in healthcare facilities within the developing world continues to offer numerous challenges as a result of reduced resources related to socio-economics, infrastructure and human resources. However it is possible to achieve substantial progress even within such challenging circumstances through a programme led by trained and empowered infection control professionals. Such initiatives need to concentrate on low cost, high impact interventions and emphasis on training, backed by interaction and networking with colleagues and societies within the country itself and beyond.References 1. Moe CL, Rheingans RD. Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. J piddle Health. 2006 4 Suppl 141-57. 2. Boschi-Pinto C, Velebit L, Shibuya K. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ. 200886710-7. 3. World Health Organization. slaying of the global str ategy for health for all by the year 2000. Eighth report on the world health situation. Volume 6 Eastern Mediterranean Region. Second Evaluation. World Health Organization. Regional Office Eastern Mediterranean Region, Alexandria, Egypt 1996. 4. Shears P.Poverty and infection in the developing world healthcare-related infections and infection control in the tropics. J Hosp Infect. 2007 67217-24. 5. Wenzel RP. Towards a global perspective of nosocomial infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 19876341-3. 6. Pittet D, Allegranzi B, Storr J et al. Infection control as a major World Health Organization priority for developing countries. J Hosp Infect. 200868285-92. 7. Mhalu FS, Mtango FD, Msengi AE. Hospital outbreaks of cholera transmitted through close person to person contact, Lancet 1984 ii 8284. 8. Vaagland H, Blomberg B, Kruger C, Naman M, Jureen R, Langeland N.Nosocomial outbreak of neonatal Salmonella enteritidis in a rural hospital in northern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis 2004 4 35. 9. Ma rshall TM, Hlatswayo D, Schoub B. Nosocomial outbreaks a potential threat to the elimination of measles? J Infect Dis 2003 187S97S101. 10. Mehtar S. Lowbury Lecture 2007 infection prevention and control strategies for tuberculosis in developing countries lessons learnt from Africa. J Hosp Infect. 2008 69321-7. 11. lynch P, Pittet D, Borg MA, Mehtar S. Infection control in countries with limited resources. J Hosp Infect. 2007 65 Suppl 2148-50 12.Fisher-Hoch SP. Lessons from nosocomial haemhorragic fever outbreaks. Br Med Bull 2005 73 123-137 13. Borg MA, Scicluna E, de Kraker M et al. Antibiotic resistance in the south east Mediterraneanpreliminary results from the fortify project. Euro Surveill. 200611164-7. 14. Borg MA, Cookson BD, Gur D et al. Infection control and antibiotic stewardship practices reported by south-eastern Mediterranean hospitals collaborating in the ARMed project. J Hosp Infect. 2008 PMID18783850. 15. Damani N. Simple measures save lives an approach to infecti on control in countries with limited resources.J Hosp Infect. 200765 Suppl 2151-4. 16. Sobayo EI. Nursing aspects of infection control in developing countries. J Hosp Inf 1991 18 388-391. 17. Meers PD. Infection control in developing countries. J Hosp Inf 1988 11 406 410. 18. Ponce-de-Leon S. The needs of developing countries and the resources required. J Hosp Inf 1991 18 378-381. 19. Raza MW, Kazi BM, Mustafa M, Gould FK. Developing countries have their give characteristic problems with infection control. J Hosp Infect. 2004 57294-9. 20. Borg MA, Cookson BD, Scicluna E ARMed Project Steering Group and Collaborators.Survey of infection control infrastructure in selected southern and eastern Mediterranean hospitals. Clin Microbiol Infect. 200713344-6. 21. Lynch P, Rosenthal VD, Borg MA, Eremin SR. Infection Control A Global View in Jarvis WR Bennett & Brachmans Hospital Infections 2007. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia. 22. Damani N. Surveillance in Countries with re strain Resources. Int. J. Infect Contr 2008 41 23. World Health Organisation. Prevention of hospital acquired infections A Practical Guide. 2nd ed. Geneva World Health Organization, 2002. WHO/CDR/EPH/2002. 12.

Reflective Writing on Marketing Essay

During your time at university you go out spend a lot of your time opinion opinion round what people take a leak said, your reading, your own thought and how your thinking has changed. The thinking process involves two aspects meditative thinking and critical thinking. Rather than being two crack processes they argon closely connected. (Brookfield 1987) Reflective thinking saying is a form of personal response to experiences, situations, essences or new sack outledge. It is a processing phase where thinking and learning take place. There is neither a right nor wrong way of reflective thinking there are just questions to explore. The reflective thinking process starts with you. Before you apprise begin to assess the words and ideas of others, you fatality to pa determination and send and examine your own thoughts. This involves revisiting your prior experience and knowledge of the takings you are exploring. It also involves considering how and why you think the way you do. The examination of your beliefs, values, attitudes and assumptions forms the demonstrateation of your sense. Reflective thinking demands that you recognise that you bring valu fitted knowledge to e very(prenominal) experience. It helps you therefore to recognise and clarify the substantial connections mingled with what you already know and what you are learning. It is a way of helping you to become an participating, aware and critical learner.What is Reflective compose?Reflective report is* Your response to experiences, opinions, events or new information * Your response to thoughts and feelings* A way of thinking to explore your learning* An opport social unity to gain self-knowledge* A way to achieve clarity and better understanding of what you are learning * A chance to develop and reinforce writing learnings* A way of making meaning out of what you studyReflective writing is non* Just conveying information, instruction or argument* Pure translation, though there innocencethorn be descriptive elements *Straightforward conclusiveness or judgement (e.g. about whether something is right or wrong, good or bad) * Simple problem-solving* A summary of unit nones* A standard university essayWhy you are asked to do this type of assignment* To make connectionsThe idea behind reflective writing is that what you learn at university builds on your prior knowledge, whether it is formal (education) or informal (gained through experience). Reflective writing helps you develop and clarify the connections between what you already know and what you are learning, between theory and practice and between what you are doing and how and why you do it.* To examine your learning processesReflective writing encourages you to consider and comment on your learning experiences non only WHAT youve learned, but HOW you did so.* To clarify what you are learningReflecting helps you to clarify what you imbibe studied, integrate new knowledge with previous knowledge, and identify the questions you have and what you have unless to learn.* To reflect on mistakes and successesReflecting on mistakes can help you avoid repeating them. At the same time, reflecting on your discoveries helps identify successful principles to ingestion again.* To become an active and aware learner* To become a reflective practitioner once you graduate and begin your professional lifeHow to write reflectivelyWhat to discuss* Your perceptions of the level and the content.* Experiences, ideas and observations you have had, and how they re latterly to the course or topic.* What you found confusing, inspiring, difficult, interesting and why.* Questions you have and conclusions you have drawn.* How you solved a problem, r severall(a)yed a conclusion, found an answer or turn overed a point of understanding.* Possibilities, speculations, hypotheses or solutions.* Alternative interpretations or different perspectives on what you have read or done in your course.* How new ideas c hallenge what you already know.* What you need to explore next in terms of thoughts and actions.* Comparisons and connections between what you are learning and * Your prior knowledge and experience* Your prior assumptions and preconceptions* What you know from other courses, units or disciplines. committal to writing styleAs it concerns your thoughts, reflective writing is mostly subjective. Therefore, in addition to being reflective and logical, you can be personal, hypothetical, critical and creative. You can comment base on your experience, rather than limiting yourself to academic evidence. * Reflective writing is an activity that includes description (what, when, who) and analysis (how, why, what if). It is an explorative alikel often resulting in more questions than answers. * part full sentences and complete paragraphs.* You can usually use personal pronouns like I, my or we. * Keep colloquial language to a minimum (e.g. stuff, guys) * A reflective task may allow you to us e different modes of writing and language * Descriptive (outlining how something is or how something was done) * Explanatory (explaining why or how it is like that)* communicative (I think, I feel, I believe)Tips for your reflective writing process1. Think of interaction, event or episode you experienced that can be connected to the topic. 2. Describe what happened.3. What was your section?4. What feelings and perceptions surround the experience? 5. How would you explain the situation to someone else?6. What might this experience mean in the context of your course? 7. What other perspectives, theories or concepts could be apply to the situation?ReferencesBrookfield, S 1987, Developing critical thinkers challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting, Open University Press, Milton Keynes.Acknowledgement The preceding bodily was adapted from The accomplishment Centre, The University of NSW. Used by permission.Additional nonesSteps for writing a reflective p aper1.Start your self- materialization paper with an introductory paragraph. This introduction should help set the stage for the contributor and should contain the main point of the paper. This would be a good paragraph in which to include information about how the subject and the bodily impacted your life, whether it fortify your current views or caused you to change your way of thinking. 2.Write a paragraph or two about the impact the lecturer,classroom/tutorial discussions or the textbook material had on you during the course. Describe emotions you felt you felt or changes you experienced in your personal life payable to the topic or the subject. If your opinions on different subjects changed due to these factors be sure to provide your previous opinion and explain why you changed your stance. If your opinions did not change, explain why. 3.Describe a moment during the class that was the most eye-opening for you. One type would be if during a lecture/tutorial the lecturer/tu tor used a specific story or analogy to help explain the material that made the lesson really clear for you. Reflect on how you felt when you finally understood the lesson and how that lesson might have impacted the way you think. 4.Write a paragraph explaining how the information from the subject has impacted the way you impart think, act and feel in the future hanker after the semester is over. You may want to include how this subject has changed how you climb up other subjects in your degree or life in general. 5.Give feedback in your paper and share your opinions and ideas about how the subject can be improved. Share what you desire about the subject and what material helped you learn the most. Finish the paper by writing a conclusion that summarizes the main points of the paper.This is just one way of structuring reflective writing. Whichever approach to reflection you use try to bear in mind the following key points * Reflection is an exploration and an explanation of even ts not just a description of them. * Genuinely reflective writing often involves revealing anxieties, errors and weaknesses, as well as strengths and successes. This is fine (in fact its often essential), as long as you show some understanding of possible causes, and explain how you plan to improve. * It is normally necessary to select just the most significant parts of the event or idea on which you are reflecting. If you try to tell the whole story you leave likely use up your words on description rather than interpretation. * It is often useful to reflect forward to the future as well as reflecting back on the past. Vocabulary aid (adapted from University of Portsmouth, Dept for Curriculum and tonicity Enhancement) The following are just a few suggestions for words and phrases that might be useful in reflective writing. Obviously, using these words and phrases willnot in itself make you a good reflective writer. 1.DescriptionThere is no suggestion of specific vocabulary for an y descriptive elements of your reflective writing because the track down of possible events, ideas or objects on which you may be reflecting on is so great. However, if you are describing an idea, for interpreter a theory or model, it is usually best to use the present tense e.g. Buyer behaviour theory recognises (not recognised). Events, of course, are nearly always described in the past tense. 2.Interpretation aspect(s)elements(s)experience(s)issue(s)Idea(s) Was (were) For me, the most meaningfulsignificantimportantrelevantuseful learning arose fromhappened whenresulted from Previously,At the time,At start-offInitially,Subsequently,Later, I thought (did not think)felt (did not feel)knew (did not know)noticed (did not notice)questioned (did not question)realised (did not realise) Alternatively,Equally, This might beis perhapscould beis probably because ofdue toexplained byrelated to This is similar tois unlike because Unlike this revealsdemonstrates3.OutcomeHaving readexp eriencedusediscussed faildlearned I now feelthinkrealisewonderquestionknow Additionally,Furthermore,Most importantly, I have learned that I have significantly slightlyHowever, I have not sufficiently developedimproved my skills inmy understanding ofmy knowledge ofmy ability to This means thatThis makes me feel This knowledge isThis understanding could beThis skill will be essentialimportantuseful to me as a learner becauseto me as a practitioner because Because I did nothave not yetam not yet certain aboutam not yet confident aboutdonot yet knowdo not yet understand I will now need to As a next step, I need to More on ReflectionWhat is reflection?A simple definition of reflection can be consciously thinking about and analysing what you are doing and what you have done thinking about what and how you have learnt. There is a lot of theory behind reflection that can be very complex. Most of the theory relates to seeing reflection as part of the cycle of learning (Figure 1). I nitially students focus on knowledge, comprehension and practical application of subject matter. These three levels of learning are the easiest especially if the application is in a limited context e.g. worded problems from a text book. For higher levels of learning (application of knowledge in real world problems) you must be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate as shown in Table 1. Reflection is a key part of moving into these higher levels of learning.Figure 1. Leaning cycle and examples of each phaseTable 1 Six levels of learningIncreasing Difficulty Process Explanation Knowledge Recognition and recall of information and facts describing events Comprehension Interprets, translates or summarises given information demonstrating understanding of events Application Uses information in a situation different from original learning context - Analysis Separates wholes into parts until relationships are clear breaks down experiences Synthesis Combines elements to form new ent ity from the original one draws on experience and other evidence to suggest new insights Evaluation Involves acts of decision making, or judging based on criteria or rationale makes judgements aboutWhy reflect what are the benefits to the student?Learning is both an active and a reflective process. If you look at the learning cycle in Figure 1 you can see that reflection or thinking about what you have done and how and why you did it, form an integral part oflearning. Because learning is often subconscious, we dont realise that we have gained new knowledge or understanding until we stop to contemplate a particular activity. Reflection then, is a way for critical analysis, problem solving, synthesis of opposing ideas, evaluation, identifying patterns and creating meaning. Reflection will help you reach the higher levels of learning.Most students are focused on the lower levels of learning. What do I have to know and demonstrate to laissez passer the exam? This is a very short-si ghted approach to your time at university. You will not be able to remember all the facts and knowledge you have learnt in subjects unless you can fully understand, analyse and evaluate them. As you progress through your degree you will continually need information and knowledge from other subjects and this knowledge will build on previous knowledge. You must be able to attain the higher levels of learning in order to be successful in your degree and later in your professional life. Your learning and the need to learn will not stop with the end of your university degree.Most aspects of learning are common to all disciplines but sometimes there are different emphasises on certain learning skills. For example, generally speaking at university more emphasis is placed on the understanding of the methodology and the processes of problem solving. In this context, reflection will help you to detach yourself from the facts and put them into a larger context. Higher level courses at univers ity as a art student bring a closer interaction between academic work and practical experience. Reflective practice here is critical in providing opportunities to identify areas for improvement and evaluation of the overall outcome including your decision making processes.Reflection can help bridge the gap between theory and practice and will enable you to understand your own thinking and learning. Another benefit is that it encourages you to look beyond your academic accomplishment and recognise the depth and range of other mobile skills. University is more than learning about facts and figures, it is a life experience. You will not learn everything that you need in your professional life atuniversity. Your learning will be life long, so take some time to think about what skills you bring with you to university and what you learn along the way. How do I reflect?Reflection does not mean that you sit in the lotus position, humming meditative chants. Reflection can be active and nee d not take forward from your study time. It is an important tool that can be used in all your university and professional work.Opportunities for reflection should occur before, during and after activities. That way you can take note of your learning starting point, assess your progress through the project and critically evaluate your learning at the end of the activity. Look critically at what you have done, what youre team did and what the outcomes were. You need to ask yourself the why, how and what type of questions.Introducing ReflectionReflection is an important part of your learning whether you do it consciously or not. But what exactly is it? An excellent description of reflection can be found in the Harry Potter novel The Goblet of Fire. In the paragraph below Dumbledore, the chief wizard and head teacher, is talking to Harry about having excess thoughtsHarry stared at the stone basin. The contents had returned to their original, silvery white state, swirling and rippling beneath his gaze.What is it? Harry asked shakily.This? It is called a Pensieve, said Dumbledore. I sometimes find, and I am sure you know the feeling, that I simply have too many thoughts and memories crammed into my mind.Err, said Harry who couldnt truthfully say that he had ever felt anything of the sort.At these times said Dumbledore, indicating the stone basin, I use the Penseive. One simply siphons the excess thoughts from ones mind, pours them into a basin, and examines them at ones leisure. It becomes easier to spot patterns and links, you understand, when they are in this form. (Rowling 2000)During the semester and in your reflective writing we are asking you to think about the process you have been through, how these events affected your behaviour, to think about what you have learnt, and to evaluate your performance. By writing these things down it will give you the opportunity to clarify your thoughts and to spot the patterns and links.Reflective writing examplesAs an exa mple, look at the following two critiques one is a better example than the other King (2002) Development of Student Skills In Reflective Writing, p 16, http//www.csd.uwa.edu.au/iced2002/publication/Terry_King.pdf 1.I woke up late because my alarm didnt ring. My own fault, but there you are. By the time I had finished my eat (my usual bowl of cornflakes, and a cup of black coffee with three sugars), I had missed my bus (thats the itemise 9a, picked up at the bus stop outside Halfords), which had left on time (just for a change).So I got to University, and by the time I had found the right room, I was over 30 minutes late for the OOPR2 Exam. Unfortunately, the invigilator wouldnt let me take the exam because it was against University regulations. Didnt he realise how important it was for me to pass that exam? My overall grade depends on it, and now I stand to have a resit in September when I wanted to have my vacation in Ibiza. 2.I was over 30 minutes late for my exam, which meant I was not allowed to sit it. This will have repercussions on my degree mark, and on my holiday plans. This is the first time I have actually missed an exam, but not the first time Ive actually been late to exams and important interviews. I have learned that I need to improve my time-keeping for critical events The University has strict rules governing late arrivals at exams I need to be better preparedThe reasons that I arrived late were My alarm clock didnt ring because I forgot to reset its time after daylight saving on Saturday night (although I had reset all the other clocks in the house). I totally rely on the alarm clock ringing I have no back-up system I rely on my bus a break down or it leaving early would also cause me to be late I did not know in which room the exam was if I had, I would still have been a few minutes late, but at least I could have sat the exam.In order to improve the situation for next year, I plan to Have a process to check all the clocks in the house when the clocks are due to change Make sure I have a back-up alarm system (using my digital watch) for all long time when its important to get up early On exam day, aim to catch the earlier bus its only 20 minutes earlier. maybe consider missing breakfast, and buying a sandwich on the way from the bus to the exam room. I do believe that a good breakfast is important though Make sure I know the correct room well in advance of the exam, by checking each room number when I first get the timetable.I suspect I need to reflect more on my priorities this degree is really very important to me.

Product Launch

This essay will discuss the way to launch a freshly product onto the market. There are different grimaces which need to be considered such(prenominal) as marketing, market search, advertising and market class. This essay will show some pros and cons of these methods. When you want to introduce a new product onto the market, market investigate is important. This means to collect and analyse marketing data. There are different ways to get information about consumer preferences. An advantage of qualitative research is that you tidy sum get attitudes, opinions and observe behaviours of customers relating to a new product.I think that tasting is a good example. I could gather positive experiences with tastings. When I go food market shopping I am sometimes able to try new products. It is a good way to get to know the flavours of new products. The quantitative research is to a fault helpful to get numbers and statistics. In my opinion market research is necessary for product launche s but it is also very time-consuming. Another aspect concerns market segmentation. Market segmentation is to divide a market into distinct groups of buyers. Market segments could be age, income, hobbies and family size. Each segment consists of spate with common characteristics.The advantage of segmentation is that you can serve potential customers with the appropriate advertising activities concerning the new product. Marketing in general is highly relevant when your intention is to introduce a new product onto the market. Marketing is the management process involved in identifying, anticipating and satisfying the consumer requirements profitably. In marketing, the marketing mix is sometimes referred to as the four Ps promotion, price, localization and product. Additions could be profit, processes and physical evidence. However, in any of these contexts the most important aspect is advertising.Advertising means to describe the product publicly and to try and to persuade people to buy it. The help of an advertising agency could be useful. An advantage is that they have resources such as knowledge about all aspects of advertising and advertising media. In addition, it consists talented advertising people who develop a media plan specifying which media newspapers, magazines, posters, emails will be used and in which proportions. One possibility is to use advertising slogans to absorb attention. In Germany it is popular to take English slogans (Come in and find out) or wrong grammar slogans (11880 Da werden Sie geholfen).An advantage of these slogans is that you can keep the message, vision or jingle in mind. Other activities could be commercials on TV or radio, free gifts, Billboards along the road, print advertising like flyers or posters and banners on websites, are also popular mediums for advertising your product or service. To conclude, I have shown the most important activities relating to product launches. The message is that these activities are nece ssary to increase the level of sentiency of new products. In addition I have demonstrated that product launches are very time-consuming and to evaluate in terms of success.

Carpe Diem Essay

Seizing the day has a profound meaning behind it, in Latin it is known as Carpe Diem. Carpe Diem refers to having no fear to do something, taking chances and risks. In the photographic film The Dead Poets Society a character named Knox has a crush on a girl, while she was already dating an other guy. Knox was trying to seize the day by trying to spend time with her. There are many more examples of carpe diem in this majestic movie, but this I feel is the most pertinent. Many of the numberss that we read in class were also related to the live life like it is the last. The movie and the other poems are key in explaining what carpe diem really means. The Dead Poets Society is a great example of seizing the day. Knox taking risks, asking a football impostors girlfriend on a date shows that he has no fear.He had no fear of the consequences that would probably occur if he was ever caught. In another example of the movie, a character Neil defied his father by going into acting. Neils f ather told him that he did not want Neil to go into acting, and become a doctor. Neil went against his father, and was the lead in a play. Neil seized the day by doing the play, and hope that his father would find forgiveness in him. These examples from The Dead Poets Society are great examples of what carpe diem signifies. another(prenominal) example of carpe diem is the great number of poems that we read in class. These poems also stated the same as the movie and that was to live life to the fullest as soon as possible. The poem such as O captain, my captain by Walt Whitman expressed carpe diem, which is why it was a major part of the movie The Dead Poets Society.This poem was related to Lincoln and the civil war, about taking chances and to seize the day. Other poems stressed that we are not on this earth forever and time is going by fast, so now is the time to seize the day. Poems that we read stressed the meaning of carpe diem, especially the poem by Walt Whitman. These example s of the poems that we read in class, and the examples that came out of the movie are great examples of what seizing the day really means. The example of Knox having no fear whatsoever by dating another guys girlfriend, shows that he is taking chances and wants to seize the day before it is too late. The poems we read such as o captain, my captain also show seizing the day as well. So overall carpe diem refers to do not wait until it is too late, if there is an opportunity take it and seize day no matter what the risks or consequences.

Planning in Early Childhood

The observation of children is performed by t all(prenominal)ers and educators, to help lowstand each child, and their characteristics. Along with assessment and evaluation, educators be able to understand each childs victimisation, and make decisions about appropriate activities and figure to offer each child, to help foster their one-on-one victimization. (Veale, A. and Piscitelli, B. 1988) This screen impart discuss the Value of the Observation Process in Planning for early puerility settings, and the lineament of each teacher in facilitating childrens unmarried cultivation and development.Observation is a very valuable and important part of the planning fulfill as each child is different. Observation and Record care in Early Childhood Programs (Veale, A. and Piscitelli, B. 1988,) Suggests that in order for educators to provide proper learning experience for children, they essential contend each childs strengths, weaknesses, interests, fears, joys, ideas and individ ual interests to plan stimulating and appropriate learning experiences.Through observation, Educators undersurface gather this information on what each child is capable of, how each child behaves under a range of different circumstances and how the child interacts with other children, and adults. The information collected from observation helps educators to develop objectives and plans to enhance childrens learning and development (Planning and Learning, NZTC pg. 5). hard-hitting Planning and developing of learning outcomes for children is a collaborated effort between colleagues, children, Parents/Whanau and the community.DOP 6 outlines that importance of coaction between colleagues when it comes to forming an effective plan in the early childishness milieu. Open relationships and free discussions amongst each other empowers educators to become reflective practitioners and to understand different perspectives (MoE, 1998) By collaborating with parents/ Whanau educators house i ncrease their judgment of the childs mentation and learning, parents and carers become wiser about the child (Stonehouse, cited in Hanna, 2006, p. 3) and planning becomes more effective and spiritful for the child. Te Whariki states under the principle of Family and Community, The wellbeing of children is interdependent with the well-being and gardening of local communities and neighborhoods. Childrens learning and development are fostered it the well-being of their family and community is supported. (MoE, 1996, p. 42) Society is constantly changing, and children grow and change with the community, so educators need to plan for the proceeds and change.And most importantly the children need to be guideed while planning. Children are individuals and their voice necessitate to be heard. Educators need to be aware of the childs capabilities, interests and learning needs to provide efficient learning activities that will be effective and enjoyable for the child. The purpose of ass essment is to give useful information about childrens learning and development to the adults providing the program and to children and their families. (MoE, 1996 pg. 9) Assessment of the effectiveness of the program and keeping track of the childs development helps educators to make decisions so effective changes can be made as needed to help the childs personal progress and learning objectives. Likewise with planning, assessment needs to consider the changes in the community, consider the needs of the child and the parents/whanau to be the most effective for the childs learning. Evaluation is the final step in the on-going planning of childrens learning. The purpose of evaluation is to make informed judgments about the quality and effectiveness of the program. (MoE, 1996 Pg. 29) Evaluation is a crucial part of the planning process as it gives educators a prospect to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of their program planning and to be better informed for future planning. Edu cators need to use a range of methods to evaluate the program. This can be done by reflections, regularly updating what works well and monitoring effectiveness, consulting with patents/whanau, and most importantly making appropriate changes.Educators hold the important role of supporting and facilitating each childs development, one method of facilitating for the child is by recognizing and providing an optimal learning environment. An optimal learning environment is a galosh environment specifically designed to facilitate a childs learning and developmental needs. Educators need to provide time and opportunity for children to respond and experience the world creatively, it also needs to offer exposure to a variety of experience, to be secure and offer stimulating experiences so children can take risks and analyze the world around them safely.Olds (2001) suggests that children need to feel comfortable in their environment for them to explore. Educators need to be vigilant in makin g sure that each individuals needs are met so the child feels safe and comfortable in the learning environment. Creating an optimal learning environment means educators need to consider the aspects that create this environment. Harris head suggests that the overall effectiveness of an early childhood program is dependant on quality of staff, suitable environment, consistent schedules and parent involvement.Another aspect educators need to consider while facilitating learning is the importance of the interpersonal environment. Interpersonal environment refers to the relationships established in the environment. (Planning and Learning, NZTC, 2009, pg 49. ) Educators need to provide an environment that will allow children to learn through responsive and reciprocal relationships with people (MoE, 1996). Children must feel comfortable safe and secure in order to engage in efficient and meaningful learning.Fu (2004) believes that establishing supportive, responsive relationships with children and parents/whanau helps with the development of knowledge, social skills and attitudes and reinforces learning. Building a relationship with the child and their family will help educators to have a clear understanding of the childs development and the holistic needs of the child. Educators need to engage in constant interactions with parents to gain proper insight into the childs individual beliefs, rituals, preference and values, so to flesh a personal and meaningful relationship with the child.Relationships are the heart of learning. By Building a close relationship with the child allows educators to respond sensitively to each childs needs. By building this Positive and sensitive relationships, research has shown that it enhance a childs development and is the base of early childhood education. Vygotsky social constructive theory of the Zone of Proximal Development can effectively help educators with providing the best support and to develop strategies to assist the le arning and development of the children.The Zone of Proximal Development is described by Vygotsky as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by indie problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peer (L. S. Vygotsky, p. 86) Vygotsky bed that when an individual was tested on tasks alone, they rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with an adult. The process of involvement by the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more effective. James Atherton, 2009) by observing a child, educators can observe what a child needs individually, find out what is changeling for the child and work collaboratively alongside with the child and develop strategies to help further the childs learning. From this theory the teaching strategy of Co-construction was developed. Con-construction is described as a collabo rative process from which new understanding and concepts emerge. (Planning and Learning NZTC, 2009, Pg. 39)By collaborating together to find new understanding and concepts between the child, peers, and adults can develop strategies to offer new ideas and concepts to activities.Educators have the important role of providing a co-constructive environment by listening to the child, playing with the child, and have an progressive participation in their learning, to help develop a childs interests in learning further. Educators also need to encourage children to share what they think and know (Planning and Learning, NZTC, 2009, pg. 39) . Planning the curriculum should be a continuing process, involving careful observation, identification of needs and capabilities, provision of resources, assessment and evaluation (MoE, 1996, p. 8) Observation, planning, assessment, and evaluation is an ongoing process that must be part of a daily routine. Every educator will be different in how they pla n, but thru collaboration with colleagues, parents/whanau, the child, and consideration of the community will help educators to plan as effectively as they can for each individual and help them to grow and improve, and learn how to provide children with the best possible environment to learn and develop in.

Discovery of gold in America

The discovery of gold in California sparked a massive emigration across the clear to the pacific sea-coast by Americans oceanrching for wealth. This massive migration of people brought Jeffersons dream of a celibateal American empire to reality, and began to establish the unite States as the dominant state of matter in North America. This massive migration overly prompted the desire to bridge the demesne for the purpose of making the trip from one coast to another easier.This resulting need to bridge the nation might be the undischargedest contri hardlyion of the gold rush to the history of the United States. On January 24th, 1848, James Marshall discove personnel casualty what he believed to be Gold dust in the adjourn of a creek right outside his mill. He brought this sample of the shiny material up to Ft. Sutter in Sacramento, where it was deemed indeed to be gold, and thus the migration of massive amounts of people we call the gold rush began. In 2 years after the dis covery of gold, the population of California was 90. 000 people.At the time of the discovery California was relatively uninhabited by Americans. The United States had finally realized its dream of a country r severallying from sea to shining sea, but now that the lands were there, the United States had to figure out how to deal its people to settle these lands so they would actually be worth having. It is great for a country to have a lot of land, but if they remain uninhabited and underdeveloped then the land really isnt worth much. The gold rush consisted of some prospectors seeking to find their fortunes in the mines of California.The emigration of so many Americans to the very western boundary of the country was exactly what the Government necessitate for the lands it just purchased to be seen as a wise investment. In the devil years since the discovery of gold the population of California ballooned to 90 thousand people, most of which were prospectors, and others trying to get rich quick onward the discovery of gold. By 1854, the population reached an even more impressive three hundred thousand people. legion(predicate) people moved out west to escape the cities of the tocopherolernmost and set off on their have got, be free.The migration into these uninhabited lands increased the need for transportation like roads, pressures, and canals as well as the opportunities for work and another incentive for people to move out of the cities where there was a large relative incidence of unemployment. With the discovery of gold and the massive migration of emigrants westward, came the need to be able to more quickly traverse the continent for both communication, and transportation. The answer to this need was the transcontinental railroad.By the mid(prenominal)dle of the 1850s, the need for a transcontinental railroad was universally accepted and acknowledged. Before now, the best air to get from the east coast to the west coast was through the Isthmu s of Panama. Between 1848 and 1869, the completion of this railroad, 375 thousand people crossed Panama on their way to California and the gold, and another 225 thousand crossed the isthmus in the other direction. Along with this massive causal agency of people came great wealth crossing the isthmus, creating even more of a call for the development and domain of a railroad.This crossing of Panama was very hazardous to the health of the people who crossed it. Cholera, among other insanely diseases was very prevalent among the travelers and often took many lives. The increased traffic going to the west coast along with the hazardous conditions of the next best available bridle-paths led to the inception of the idea of edifice a transcontinental railroad. By 1850 there were 9,021 nautical miles of functioning track in the United States, but nothing that connected the east coast and the west coast.During the 1850s, an average of 2,160 miles of new track was l attend every year. Wi th the increase in the institution of functioning track throughout the 1850s, the development of locomotives that are more powerful and more stable cars permitted engine room feats that seemed impossible a decade earlier. stun fever clearly had the nation in its grips and it was just a matter of time before a railroad that crossed the continent would be built. A immature York businessman, Asa Whitney, was the first to propose the idea of a transcontinental railroad in 1845.He proposed a way of life along the northern border we share with Canada. Before the gold rush, he was largely ignored, but later(prenominal)ly he was taken seriously, and by 1853 it was realized that one was needed and that huge government subsidies would be needed to build it. Upon this realization of the need for a transcontinental railroad came the realization that whichever eastern city was the manoeuver of the railroad would become immensely wealthier, and so begun a major struggle between the cities of the east to make the rights to be the eastern hub.The amendment to the Army appropriations act allowed a quarter of a million dollars for the railroad to be realised in ten months, and listed quintuple possible routes that it could take. The Northern Route, from St. Paul to Seattle, The council Bluffs to San Francisco route, the exchange route, between the thirty-eighth and 39th parallels from the arkensas river to San Francisco, The route from Fort Smith along the Arkansas River to Los Angelos, and the southern route from fulton on the red River to san Diego. Diferent people would benefit from each of these routes and there was much fighting over whivh would be the ultimate route.in one case the south cecedded from the union the southern route was no longer considered as an option. An engineer named Theodore Judah went out and surveyed his own route of crossing the nation, and in 1857, he published hi Practical Plan for Building the peace-loving Railroad. He went on to sen d a copy to the president and every member of congress, and billed it as the first genuinely practical plan for traversing the continent. The California state legislature adopted a memorialisation on the benefits of a transcontinental railroad and offered it to Judah to personally deliver to congress.While he was selling the splendour of a transcontinental railroad to coition, he was besides making plans in California to take utility of any decision Congress makes to accept his crazy idea. He went around the state trying to lead people to by downslope in his railroad company, The cardinal Pacific, as he was sure that Congress would pass the Curtis Act that mandated the formation of both railroads competing with each other from either end of the route and finally meeting in the middle.He finally sold his theory to four men, the Big Four as they would become known that railroads to the mining towns of California from the east coast was a money maker, and that if they would bu y fund in his railroad company they would be able to reap the profits. The big four, or Collis Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Leland Stanford, and Charles Crocker, fixed to buy into Judahs idea. Them, along with Judah, and a Nevada City mineowner named Charles Marsh decided to divide equally among themselves the cost of a full-scale survey of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, as well as buy enough stock in the company to allow its permit incorporation.This group of visionaries started what became known as the Central Pacific Railroad Co. , which would in the end become the railroad company that built the transcontinental railroad from the west east. Due to his efforts, Judah persuade Congress to pass the Pacific Railroad Act on June 20th 1862, calling for the creation of two competing railroad companies to start at confrontation ends of the route and meet in the middle. The two companies created were the Central Pacific Railroad Co. , and the Union Pacific Railroad Co.Since the Cent ral Pacific Railroad Co. was already a privately owned company it wasnt as heavily regulated as the Union Pacific Railroad Co. was, which was a government formed company whose specific purpose was to build the eastern leg of the railroad. The accepted route of the railroad was from Omaha, Nebraska in the East, to the Bay area in the west. The federal government granted the two companies aid in the way of United States 6% bonds that had to be paid back with interest set about 30 years after the completion of the railroad.Yet, due to the Civil War that was raging at this time, the bonds held minuscular confidence in the market and thus never sold at par, thus depreciating the aid from the very beginning. The government as well awarded the companies a right-of-way extending two hundred feet on either side of the tracks, and five alternate square miles of public land on either side of the line, or 6,400 acres per mile of track. Both Companies were too to give priority to the transp ortation of government mails, troops, and supplies on the line.The Union pacific was have to build a hundred miles in the first 2 years and another hundred miles each succeeding year thereafter. The Central Pacific, due to the mountainous terrain was notwithstanding obligated to build half as much as the Union Pacific over the same prescribed amount of time. The act also specified that the two companies would be confiscated if the railroad were not completed by July 1, 1874. The wind of the railroad and the subsequent telegraph line that went up along side it, cost the government nothing as it was only loaning its credit and not its money.The two companies broke ground in 1803, the Union Pacific work westward from Omaha, Nebraska, and the Central Pacific from Sacramento California. The building of the track proved to be extremely delicate and arduous and provided much headache for everyone involved. The Central Pacific ran the laying of the track much like a military operation , as it was extremely organized. Due to the Civil War and the mines of the west, there was a huge parturiency shortage in the country. To accommodate this they had to hire many immigrant workers, especially Chinese immigrants, to lay the track.Getting supplies to the Central pacific also proved to be a very difficult task, as they had to be shipped from the east to San Francisco, and then hurried into the mountains, which wasnt an easy journey. This performance was very time consuming and delayed much building of the track. The company was very efficient in the beginning, making extraordinary progress through the flatlands, but upon grasp the mountains ran into most of the hardships in the building. The mountains proved to be unforgiving in the companies efforts to bridge the nation.Cold winters with extraordinary snows slowed the construction almost to a standstill several times. Many workers died of the extreme conditions of the mountains, making progress slower still. The moun tains also provided the arena for some of the most amazing feats of engineering. From blowing tunnels through the mountain, or creating a trestle over a ingurgitate the engineering advances made in during this endeavor have lasted until now and made the building of other railroads possible. In the first three years of building, the company only laid 40 miles of track, well behind the footmark mandated by the railroad act.Over the same time, the Union Pacific wasnt doing much better as it was also only able to lay 40 miles of track itself. While the terrain wasnt as rough as that of the west, the same problems of management and project prevailed in the east also. It wasnt until two brothers took over the actual building of the track and therefore invented what we today would consider modern management techniques. They led by example and do anything they asked of their workers. They did much of the labor themselves and were always the ones in the front of construction.The Union Pac ific also had cars carrying anything, and everything the workers could need, it was considered a town on wheels, and consisted of such(prenominal) things as a sleeping quarters, and cars that served meals. The workers slept, ate, and lived on these trains, as they worked a full 12 hours a day. alone the supplies for the endeavor were carried on this city on wheels, and made the construction that much more efficient. The construction process for both companies was very costly in terms of human life.Many accidents occurred, and the threat from the Indians was always a constant fear of the workers. By the end of 1867, the Union Pacific had laid 300 miles of track, while the Central had laid less than 80 miles. By the spring of 1869 the two railroads were racing towards each other and they eventually began to build track side by side one another going in opposite directions. It was then that they realized the dream had been accomplished and that they had to be joined. The designated me eting place of the two railroads was determined to be Promontory Point, Utah.On My 10, 1869, two trains converged on Promontory Point, Stamford on a train called Jupiter from the west and Durant on a run of the mill train labeled Engine 119 from the east. The heads of the two companies drove in 4 spikes into the final set of rails, two gold, one silver, and one that was a mixture between gold, silver, and iron. The work was completed in six years, a whole four years of schedule resulting in a settle with of 21 million acres. The completion of the railroad was the final act in creating this great nation of ours.Many people went west 1849 looking for a quick and easy way to obtain a great amount of wealth. Many failed and never realized their dream, but because of their migration, the nation realized the need to bridge the nation and the country as a whole became wealthier. The constructing of the railroad was probably the single greatest achievement of the mid 1800s, and the most si gnificant thing to come out of the gold rush. Because of the railroad the nations interior began to open up to settlement and communications between the two coasts became easier.

Social security policy

brotherly gage polity is a study, tangled issue in on the whole societies. Millions of the great unwashed argon heavily reliant on fond protection as a elbow room of back down to achieve a basal pattern of living. in that appreciate is intellection to be terzetto main offbeat authoritiess, in western society. These regimes argon corporate-conservative, socio- sparing and liberal. This essay repels to give a brief description of these regimes in symbolizeion, in proportion to the ground forces, France and Sweden, respectively. Then, go on to comp be the regimes, in relation to loving certification measure. It leave behind take in to account un use, al paltryances and family polity. hearty security is mountainonicalally the procedure of eudaemonias and tilts in the form of financial economic aid as income main ten-spotance which is funded by measureationation and/or insurance contributions. (Baldock et al, 1999) in that location arrest been three pr inciple types of easy-being regime. These argon corporatist-conservative, socio-democratic and liberal. The corporate-conservative regime is ordinarily based on roughlybodys contributions, thusly really work-orientated. The socio-democratic regime is usually based on universal values. The liberal regime is usually residualist.This concocts that the welf are is promisen more as a bag-up, lone(prenominal) to cater for t irrigate who would non manage at all with discover it. (Esping-Anderson, 1990) France is an example of the corporatist-conservative regime in action. Social security is hinged on solidarity. In this context, it mean values mutual responsibility, divided up risks and common action. It was first brought in to place by the introduction of a regime general for loving and health security. This was then expanded. In the 1970s additional measures were introduced to include all excluded people.The roughly signifi gouget measure was introduced in 1988. This was call ed the Revenu Minimum dInsertion. It amalgamated a rudimentary delegate on with a personal contract for neighborly inclusion. The cut regime is somewhat expensive. The control of expenditure has become the focus of brotherly policy. Pensions p define a real prominent part as they are precise costly. (www2. rgu. ac. uk/ normal policy/introduction/w realm. htm) The French regime basically advocates the powerfuls are in accordance status and class. expect comes mostly by dint of private insurance, which is back up by the articulate.It plans to fortify civil society while limiting the commercialize. (Esping-Anderson, 1990) Sweden is an example of the socio-democratic regime in action. This Swedish model is often judged as the exemplary form of public assistance aver. One of the inviolate components is the sense of coordinate co-operation. (www2. rgu. ac. uk/public policy/introduction/w produce. htm) The socio-democratic regime advocates equality and universalism of hig h standardizeds. This is through the asseverate. The verbalise is the main air of defy in that respect are high takes of benefits.It aims to amalgamate social eudaemonia and work and promote full employment. (Esping-Anderson, 1990) The fall in States of America is an example of the liberal regime in action. The liberal regime advocates residualism, laissez-faire, singularism and a knock let go forth stand on poerty. These are all dominant contents in regular the States debates on eudaemonia, yet the USA does non confirm a unified eudaemonia carcass. The predominant measures of federal provision came in the 1930s from the Roosevelt administration. (www2. rgu. ac. uk/public policy/introduction/w show. htm) it was called the new deal.It was instigated to be a safe-guard against market failures, which was desperately implyed after the tummy unemployment of the depression geezerhood. The main principle behind it was that the state should provide more than just suppor t it should actually protect the individual. (Miller, 2003) The liberal regime basically has a strong work ethic. Support comes through means- tried and true assistance. It aims to lace the market. (Esping-Anderson, 1990) Unemployment is a truly contentious issue. The three countries all have differing shipway of dealing with it. France has a deucef senile system of providing unemployment benefits.One of them is an unemployment insurance system of rules. This device is when individuals are part of a national embodied agreement, which is intermediate by the state. This system is financed by contributions. The idle are al outseted to develop benefits if they are a member of this scheme and it was not their own fault that they lost their profession. The provision and duration of these benefits also depends on how foresighted the individual has been part of the scheme. Its payment has two forms. These are either the basic benefits or post-entitlement benefit. (www. euro ope n. ie/under. tm) The other system of unemployment benefit is a guarantee supplementary scheme. It is funded by the state and was set up in 1984. its aim is to provide unemployment benefits for widowed or divorced women, young people and other disadvantaged sort outs, who have not been in the job-market long enough to make substantial contribution. It also helps those who have had been in unemployment for a very long period and are no longer entitled for the insurance scheme.Its payment comes in two forms, either a work programme allowance or a guaranteed supplementary benefit. (www. urofound. ie/under. htm) This hardened system is in stark comparison to Sweden. Their unemployment insurance benefit (UIB) has been thought to be one of the most generous in the world. It is controlled by the trade unions, finance by the state and administered by 40 conscious societies. The level of contribution varies as it depends on the likelihood of unemployment. UIB encompasses about 3/4 of une mployed people, the pass off rely on social assistance. In the 1990s UIB came under intense air pressure because of an maturation in unemployment and colligate to limit social expenditure.This resulted in that by the late 1990s at that place was a decreased eligibility and the proportion of preliminary income received was slashed from 90% to 80%. There is now a far greater pressure on unemployed individuals to join in AMS schemes (Government training schemes) to indicate their availability to work. Involvement in AMS schemes permits the re-establishment of eligibility to UIB. This groundwork be seen as a huge incentive There is a three year benefit duration limit. Despite this limit, it is unflurried safe to say that it is more generous and less disciplined than that of France. (Cochrane et al, 2001)In comparison to France and Sweden, welfare for unemployment is very complicated. The administration of social assistance is controlled by state or local anaesthetic organizati on agencies, on a decentralised instauration, even though funding does come from federal Government. However, USA welfare on employment is mainly through unemployment insurance (UI). Unemployment insurance varies significantly depending on state and local political sympathies. However, there are some principles which are relevant to most states. (www. tiss. zdu. uni) Unemployment insurance is not aimed at beingness long term support for the unemployed.It is designed to be a bridge till they rule a new job. Unemployment insurance operates under very strict condition for limited periods of time. The number of cover people is congenericly low. This is due to the fact that a lot of people are not eligible foe unemployment insurance. (www. law. cornell. edu/topics) Unemployment insurance is not unattached to the self-employed, domestic servants, farm workers, Government employees and those who have only been curtly employed. (www. buzzle. com) To actually receive unemployment bene fits from the state is incredibly complex.The actual law on benefits and who is eligible to welfare schemes is very convoluted. In extreme cases, where vulnerable individuals do not even action the criteria for schemes of federal support or assistance, may be entitled to state and local or purely state relief. This is called general assistance. (www. law. cornell. edu/topics) It has been found that the population age profile of western societies is changing. We are now living in an increasingly develop population. The age social organisation of the population comes from past turn in rates, increasing mortality rates, change magnitude longevity and migration trends.This necessarily means an increase in the step of people who will be eligible for a support. (Baldock et al, 1999) Therefore, welfare regimes have to account for it. France has a pay-as-you-go system. (www. news. bbc. co. uk) The pay-as-you-go system is basically that the pensions that are being compensable out i mmediately are being funded by taxing the employed of today. This is in stark contrast to private pension scheme (those favoured in the USA) as these are based on paying pensions out of the contributions an individual make during their entire on the job(p) life. (Baldock et al, 1999) It is believed that this is going to be unsustainable.This is due to the increasing longevity and the declining birth rates. This means that in the future there will be far fewer workers to pay for the multiplying amount of pensioners. (www. news. bbc. co. uk) This is now troubling the French Government. They are now beginning to take steps to remedy the situation. One example of this can be seen by looking at a bill approved by the French Government, in May of last year. They approved a bill that meant that the amount of time that all Government employees must(prenominal) work in order to get a full pension increases from 37 years and 6 months to 41 years and 9 months. www. telegraph. co. uk) In com parison to Sweden, the French system relinquishs a lot to be desired. In Sweden, there are two mandatory statutory pension schemes. These are a basic flat-rate payment and a contributory net profit-related scheme (ATP). both(prenominal)(prenominal) schemes are funded on a pay-as-you-go system. They are pay out of contributions from the current workforce. Every citizen and long-term resident are entitles to the basic flat-rate pension. To get the ATP pension, they have to have a thirty year history of contribution.However, there is a supplement that can be obtained with the basic pension if an individual has no ATP or a very low level of ATP. For most of the people in Sweden, the two statutory pension schemes, replace or provide round 65% of pre-retirement gross salary. However, these pensions are liable for taxation. Also, 90% of employees in Sweden top-up the statutory schemes by covering themselves with exceptional occupational pension schemes. These cover various groups of employees and provide up to an extra 10% on backup income.The extra occupational pension schemes encompass four main schemes and they work on a collective agreement. They cover people employed by local and central government as well as blue-collar workers and white-collar workers. In Sweden, in 1992, only 6. 3% of elderly households were defined as being poor after taxes, this is in stark comparison to the USA as in 1996 just over 20% of elderly households were poor. These are phenomenally contrary statistics. (Cochrane et al, 2001) There are two public pension schemes in the USA. They are the public flat-rate pension and the public earning related pension.The public pension scheme encompasses some(prenominal) the means- tried, basic-rate pension (Supplementary security income, or SSI) and the earnings related pension (Old-age, survivor and disability insurance, or OASDI). The flat-rate basic pension is financed by general federal Government revenues. However, some states give a n additional small state-government supplement. every(prenominal) SSI pensions are subject to income and asset testing. The earnings related pensions (OASDI) are financed through contributions. It is broken down as follows employee provides 6. 2% of earnings and the employers provide 6. 2% of payroll whereas the self-employed provide 24. % of earnings.The minimum eligibility requirement for OASDI pensions is ten years of contributions. This is also a pay-as-you-go system. However, occupational, private pension schemes are highly recommended. (www. reformmonitor. org) Family policy plays a very significant part in social security. In France, family allowance is assigned to all families with at least two baby birdren, under the age of 18, regardless of income. However, there are numerous supplementary means-tested benefits available. There is the family supplement, which is for families with three sisterren, over the age of three.There is also the single parent allowance, adoption allowance, the parental education allowance, the excess education allowance for children with disabilities and also the annual school allowance for children between the ages of 6 and 18. There is also the housing allowance this is calculated by the expense of rent and the families situation. Additionally, there are also birth payments, maternity benefits and parental exit benefits. These include a means-tested young child allowance it is available from the one-quarter month of gestation until the child is three years old.Also, included is a maternity benefit that increases by the amount of children plus if the mother is insured there are even more benefits. There are also paternity leave benefits, where the mother or the father can be on leave up until the childs 3rd birthday. Since 1998, there have been means-tested allowances to decrease the cost of child care for children under 3 years old. The childcare can be in the home (child minder) or at a registered facility. There are also allowances in childcare for 3 to 6 year olds. (www. reformmonitor. org)Like France, Sweden has a universal child allowance. This is for children under the age of 16 years. This goes up to 20 years, if they are in full-time education. Families, with more that 3 children are entitled to a outsize family supplement. There is also a family allowance for handicapped children who string up a public school. They also, like France, have a housing benefit. This benefit is also dependant on the expense of rent and the size of family. There are also birth payments, maternity benefits and parental leave benefits but the do not seem as good as France is.There is a remunerative parental leave for 450 days, which is divided up between the parents. Also, the mother gets special allowances because of reduced work ability. In Sweden, they can also claim a sick child benefit. This is available for a maximum of 60 days, per year, per sick child under the age of 12 years. There is a positive inf rastructure of support serve to help working parents meet their childcare obligations. It also includes the support of single parents. Since July 2001, childcare expenses were move for families with children in subsidised childcare facilities.With this reform came a guaranteed 3 hours a day for childcare for unemployed people. This was so that they could actively prove employment. (www. reformmonitor. org) The USA is completely different from France and Sweden. In the USA, under the temporary assistance for ingesty families programme (TANF), benefit payments differ widely across states. The TANF programme is to support poor families with low incomes and dependant children. It is often reduced or even stopped after a family has received benefits regularly for 6 to 24 months. This is supposed to help reduce dependence on the state.The main family assistance, which is practically available in most states, is provided through federal income tax. Families with 1 or more children ar e provided with an ample amount off of income tax and people who earn a very low wage plus have children are given refundable income tax benefits. Unlike two France and Sweden, there are very few employees, who are given paying parental leave, when a child is born or is sick. However, since 1995, unpaid leave for both child birth and child illness has been mandatory. There are 5 states, which do provide income replacements, subject to authorized conditions, for up to 52 weeks.Federal employees do benefit from 24 hours of paid leave a year, for child related activities. Some employers, in the USA, do offer subsidised childcare facilities for their staff. However, the majority of employers do not. Federal childcare funding was provided so that states could be flexible in designing inclusive, integrated childcare facilitates, to make it easier for unemployed or single parents to get back to work. (www. reformmonitor. org) To conclude, there are some major differences between each of the welfare regimes. The biggest differences come from looking at unemployment differences and family policy.The USA is probably the most divers(prenominal) plus the have all had very different consequences. However, there are similarities between some of the aspects. This comes from pensions. both regimes are based on the pay-as-you-go regime, to a certain extent. However, they all have differing success. All in all, it would be hard to say for definite that any one of them would be superior but Sweden would be a definite contender. However, it is safe to say that welfare regimes in the future could benefit from utilising the most made split for the present regimes and learning for the unsuccessful parts.Social surety Policy in the buff grasp party promised to halve child pauperization by 2010 and to eradicate it by 2020, (Walker, 1999). Social security is not merely about poorness relief, as the relief of poverty requires more than just social security reform, it is impor tant to address the identify of social security policy at present to see whether Labour can live up to this sooner ambitious target it has set.The term Social Security is used to refer to the range of policies which aim to transfer cash resources between individuals and families. It is concerned with policies which govern the redistribution of resources within society.After coming to power in 1997 the Labour government reviewed the key principles of social security policy. They developed the Welfare to Work strategy, as they want people of working age to look for employment within the labour market and avoid dependence on the state.The guardianship of a high and stable level of employment was one of the fundamental assumptions of the Beveridge report, and an objective to which all governments were positively committed after 1944 (Lowe, 1993).Hills (1997) argues that since Beveridge, the objectives of social security have never been set out in a way allo take flight measurement of whether benefit levels are adequate to meet their aims.The original aim of the National redress system as introduced following the recommendations of the Beveridge report in 1948 was to set up a system of subsistence level flat-rate social insurance benefits which were intended to cover all the main causes of inability to earn, such as old age, ailment, unemployment, widowhood and orphanhood. It also included virtually the whole body of the populations, whether employed, self- employed or non- employed, as far as possible in the same basis (Sleeman, 1979).Changes in the welfare system have been needed for a variety of reasons, society has changed, and policies need to change to keep in tune with this, these changes include changing families, working women, an ageing society and rising expectations (Giddens, 1998 Hills, 1997).In the UK, the earliest form of social security was the Poor equity which was based around discretionary payments related to individuals assessment of need , and this continued to play a part in the delivery of many means- tested benefits until the last two decades of the twentieth century (Alcock, 2003). The Elizabethan Poor fair play (1598) distinguished between the deserving and undeserving, this is something which is still reflected in Social Security policy Hewitt and Powell (2002) point out how the use of contracts can be taken back to the deserving and undeserving poor, only now the terms being used are responsible and irresponsible and this is reflected in the Security for those who cannot (DSS 1998)- which means no security for those who can but do not. Another similarity between the poor law and the modern welfare state is that Parishes excluded the traveling poor from its boundaries this is still evident today with the treatment of travelers and the single homeless. This argument is back up by Hills and Gardiner (1997).Within Social Security, Employment policy occupies a crucial position in the post- state of war reconstr uction, and without which the welfare state could not exist. Full employment would both finance the development of the welfare state, and government welfare policy would help to maintain economic growth.Barr (1993) has outlined three social aims of state hindrance in income distribution the relief of poverty in order to protect a minimum income standard was the first. The second is the protection of accustomed living standards to ensure that none has to face an unexpected and unacceptably large drop in their standard of living and the third is, smoothing out income over the life cycle. However, as pointed out by Glennerster and Hills these three interact, the balance between them and the responsibility of the state can differ over time and between countries.The aims of Social Security policy are not merely to be measured in income terms. Social and political participation may be seen as important civic virtues by a broad spectrum of political opinion. Social Security maintains a st andard of living that supports inclusiveness (Townsend 1979), the consequences of failure in this respect is social exclusion.The miseries of unemployment in a work- ethic society are well- document by Sinfield, (1981). To these are added the badgering and insecurity of dependence on means tested welfare (Bradshaw and Deacon,1983) and the despair of living at a standard of living which steadily falls behind that of the working class in work. (Taylor- Gooby, 1985). Glennerster (1999) has criticized the critics, arguing that paid work brings dignity and respect.Social welfare imposes controls on society, social security regulations distinguish those who do and do not deserve support. As pointed out by Taylor- Gooby (1985) regulations which ensure that a household head is usually responsible for the living standards of family members defined as dependents encourage a certain household pattern.Social Security is traditionally divided into a contributory and a non- contributory sector, the former covers benefits such as unsoundness benefits, unemployment benefits, retirement pension, widows benefit- those regarded as the important benefits. In the latter most benefits are allocated to those who can prove that they do through a mean test.Eligibility for social security has two fragments, the first being the formal rules and regulations regime provision of benefits and secondly the perceptions of eligibility held by claimants and potential claimants. The contributory principle, whereby National Insurance benefits are linked to earnings established under rules of eligibility which disproportionately excludes those in intermittent or low paid work, those with a higher(prenominal) risk of unemployment as well as recent migrants. The establishment of such policy on the basis of a White, Male norm thereby formally excluded many of those in minority ethnic group from social citizenship rights to such benefits (Amin and Oppenheim, 1992).Post war welfare reforms and immi gration legislation have continued to commit racially exclusionary rules which determine eligibility to welfare benefits these include residence tests, rules on recourse to public funds and sponsorship conditions. This is well documented in the case of asylum seekers in Britain.Compared with some of the other developed industrial countries, Britain has been relatively successful in establishing a general and comprehensive welfare floor. (Sleeman, 1979)As argued by Hills (1997) benefits for those without work may mitigate their immediate position but they do not solve the problem. A prime aim of social security policy should be for claimants, where possible to find independent sources of income. While the overall level of employment depends on wider economic factors, the social security structure may discourage employment under some circumstances.Under the buttoned-downs, due to rising unemployment and the recession in the early 1990s changes were made to social security policy wi th regards to the unemployed. Not only did the costs of paying unemployed peoples mortgages reduced, but Income support (IS) payments for mortgages were withdrawn for the first golf club months of unemployment. In 1996 Jobseekers Allowance (JSA) was created when contributory unemployment benefit and means- tested Income support were merged. With JSA for the first sixer months of unemployment there would be a contributory basis and after that it would be means- tested. It was decided that those under the age of 25 would receive a lower rate of benefit and that contract would be introduced between claimants and the benefits agency to formalise job searches and training criteria, as well as establishing availability for work.With regards to means tested benefits, we have all comprehend politicians expressing their concerns about benefit dependency. According to Glennerster and Hills (1998) unemployment benefit has been the largest single source of growth in means- tested populations , followed by lone parenthood.A major theme of policy has been to sustain a gap between income and benefits and in work to ensure incentives to work in the face of increasing levels of unemployment, decreasing relative levels of wages for the unskilled, and increased part- time and temporary working, Benefit policy has been changed to both decrease relative value of benefits for the unemployed and to increase use of means testing. This leads to two problems for ensuring incentives to work one is to ensure that benefit rates are not close to or greater than in- work income and to ensure that those who are working on the margins of benefit entitlement are able to improve their incomes through work. The side- effect of means testing is that benefit is reduced as income rises on base the incidence of tax and social security contributions on increased earnings. As benefits have fallen relative to incomes over time, the incentives to work, therefore, in general have been improved (Glenne rster and Hills, 1998).The main theme of social security policy is work for those who can security for those who cannot. Which consist of a rights and responsibilities discourse. Those who cannot work have a right to security. However, for those who can work, the right to benefit is more conditional. The basic philosophy is that work is the best route out of poverty. do work pay includes a national minimum wage, tax reform such as Working families tax credits and nursery credits, which increase the return from low paid work and reduce the poverty trap. The government aims to achieve full employment, instead of paying people in poverty more benefit, New labour will redistribute opportunities and take a preventative approach, giving people the skills to escape poverty.Within Social Security policy is employment centred social policy which is based around the New Deal programmes which target different groups. For example for young unemployed people there are four choices education a subsidised private sector job a voluntary sector job or an environmental working class force the opportunity for sitting at home on benefits is not an option, as benefits will be reduced. For lone parents there are no penalties for not taking up employment, although they do have to touch work- focused interviews, in order to make them aware of the opportunities available to them.With regards to pensioners pensions are uprated by prices quite than earning, the poorest pensioners do have a means- tested minimum pension guarantee that ties in with the increase in earnings. This represents a move from Universalism to selectivity. This also means that gradually pensioners will carry on falling behind workers (Powell and Hewitt, 2002). This in itself demonstrates the lack of respect for the elderly, and the fuels the argument that once someone passes working age, they are no longer deemed an integral part of society, and are pushed out of mainstream society. This essay aims to look at the provisions in place for young people, of working age, for whom the government are trying to move into the labour market.What New Labour is trying to aim for is an active, preventative and intelligent rather than passive welfare state that encourages people to realize their potential rather than being chained to passive dependency (Powell and Hewitt, 2002).The bulk of National Insurance expenditure is on pensions, whereas for sickness and unemployment contributory benefits do still apply. JSA covers unemployment, for the first six months there is non- means tested support for hose who meet the NI contribution conditions and is linked to an agreement by claimants to take steps to secure a return to the labor market. Jobseekers allowance is no longer an Insurance benefit for the unemployed, after six months claimants abide on the benefit, and are subject to the same job search criteria, but their benefit moves onto a means- tested basis, which means any other resources (income fr om a partner) will reduce ones overall entitlement. In practical terms, means- tested JSA is Income support, given another title, as Income support has for some time been payable to unemployed claimants not cover by National Insurance benefits. It is still available for those out of work, who are not required to seek work under JSA rules, such as lone parents and people with disabilities and Carers.Income support is a minimum income scheme for British citizens (Alcock, 2003), payable only to those who are out of full- time employment (16 hours a week) and is reduced if there are any earning or any capital above 3000 in total. Housing costs are not covered, but claimants who pay rent can apply to their local council for housing benefit and council tax benefit, in some cases interest payments on mortgage debts are covered. For children of parents who are in receipt of Income Support or means- tested JSA free school meals are available.A major feature of social security protection was once sickness, but in the 1980s , under the Tories support for short term sickness (up to six months) was shifted to employment, employers were expected to pay workers a minimum level, whilst they were off sick. After six months, claimants with chronic illness or disability move to Incapacity benefit (NI protection) if they meet the contribution conditions with a medical test, which requires they are incapable(p) of all work. For those who do not satisfy the contribution condition, they are paid Income Support which is means- tested, as long as they can satisfy the conditions for Incapacity Benefit.For those in low wage employment means- tested support is also available through tax credits, payable through employers, administered by the Inland Revenue. Alcock (2003) argues that there has been a significant shift in the operation of means tested benefits under the Labour government since 1997. Family address was replaced by Working Families Tax Credit, made available to a wider ra nge of low- income families. Not only does this act as a supplement to the wages of low income workers with dependent children, it also aims to make low paid work seem more attractive, to encourage labour market participation as part of the governments loading to promote employment.The most important of the Universal benefits is child benefit which is paid to all parent or guardians to help them with the cost or rearing children. Critics would argue that, like all Universal function, Child benefit is a waste of public resources by paying benefit to wealthy parents, who do not need this money like poorer parents do. The benefit of Universal benefits is that there is no stigma attached to being in receipt of it.Jones and Novak (1999) argue that the whole benefits system operates to control and discipline citizens rather than support and protect them.There are a number of different theories and ideologies of welfare, the main traditional theories are the definitive Liberal possibili ty Marxist theories and Fabian theories.Classical liberal theories are based around ideas that see freedom as absence of coercion rather than protection from misfortune and hardship. Within classical liberal thinking there are two contrasting views on the state. Traditional or negative liberal defend the individual liberty while challenging what they perceive as the arbitrary misuse of power. Negative liberals say the parting of the state should be minimal. On the other hand there are positive liberals who say that the state can adopt a more constructive role in dealing with social problems. Both positive and negative liberal thinking have been influential on the modern British Conservative party. It is important to make the distinction that not all classical liberals are fence to the welfare state.Classical liberal theory points out that unwarranted state intervention will only amplify social and economic problems since the market system will be less efficient and economic growth will slow. It is also believed that individual freedom is of paramount importance and any attempt by the state to provide fiscal help to the poor compromises that individual freedom, this is said to be done in two ways the first is by asking those who earn wages to pay extra taxes to support the poor and secondly, by creating the conditions under which poor individuals and the state will have a relationship of dependency.Classical liberals regard the causes of poverty to be personal, rather than structural poverty is traced to personal feelings rather than to failings of the political or economic systems. They go on to say that individual rights must be preserved at all times, and go as far to say that people have the right to be poor.Barnett (1986) stated that the welfare state was necessary for a short time, following the problems created by the Second World War that those who supported it did not take a long term view of the countries economic involve. The welfare state is no l onger beneficial. A occur objection to the welfare state is the belief that services provide benefit to those who do not need it such as child benefit, which is a universal benefit and it paid to everyone, regardless of earning, some would see this as a waste.Sidney and Beatrice Webb were influential figures in Fabianism, they believed that collective welfare through the state was not only essential, but an inevitable development within British capitalistic society. An early example of the influence of Fabian thinking was with regards to the Poor Laws, whereby in 1905 the Royal Commission was set up to review the old niminy-piminy support system. The significance of this was the governments recognition that it had to implement major changes to the welfare state. Fabianism is a variant of British Socialism.The New Left is a term used to describe a broad range of differing approaches to social structure and social policy from a Marxist perspective. In general many agreed that the a chievement of the welfare state in Britain was neither as desirable nor as successful as had been assumed. Marxists argued that the welfare state had not been successful in solving the social problems or the poor and of the broader working class, in get along the welfare state supported capitalism, as opposed to challenging it (Ginsburg, 1979)The New Left has been criticized for its theoretical assumptions of the assumed desirability of state welfare services, arguing that for many of the working class social security was seen as being oppressive and stigmatizing.Hayek (1944) argues that despite the overwhelming influence of Fabianism within social policy, right wing critics of state welfare had always argued against the interference of state provision with the workings of a capitalist market economy. This neo-liberal thinking was referred to by Fabians and the new left as the New Right as it was interested in returning to the classic liberal values of a laissez- faire state, whic h advocated for self- protecting families and communities.The main argument of the new right was that state intervention to provide welfare services, and the gradual expansion of these which Fabianism sought, merely drove up the cost of public expenditure to a point at which it began to interfere with the effective operation of a market economy (Bacon and Eltis, 1976). They claimed that this was a point that had already been reached in the 1970s , where the high levels of taxation needed for welfare services managed to reduce profits, crippled investment and driven capital overseas (Alcock, 2003).Like the New Left, the New Right also challenged the desirability of state welfare in practice, arguing that free welfare services only encouraged dependency and provided no incentive for individuals and families to protect themselves through savings and insurance (Boyson, 1971).Hayek (1982) argued that state intervention involved unwanted interference with the freedom of individuals to org anize their own lives.Neo- liberal thinking is opposed to extensive state intervention to provide public services effectively they are opposed to the welfare state. They argue that it is undesirable on ideological, political and economic grounds that is undesirable in theory and unfeasible in practice.Their ideological objections to it revolve around their concern about dependency culture by providing welfare through the state, individuals are discouraged from providing these for themselves and their families, which could in turn trap them into relying on others for support. Murray (2002) makes the point that in social security if everyone is going to be provided with a basic standard of living, this makes it an attractive option for individuals to choose this, rather than seeking paid employment. Which applies to means- tested benefits, whereby entitlement is related to an individuals income level, this means any increase in income means a loss in benefit.Economically speaking, th e welfare state is undesirable because it interferes with the free working of the market, leading to failures in markets developing properly.Although neo- liberals argue that the welfare state is not practical, most recent neo- liberal theorists agree that a safety net should be in place, as it may still be needed. Neo- liberalism, therefore still remains within the mixed economy of welfare, which is found in all modern welfare capitalist countries (Alcock, 2003).Marxist theories are based around the idea of Marx (1970) whose claim was that capitalism is an inherently oppressive economic structure in which the working class are exploited by the capitalist class through the labour market. It is argued by Marxists that Socialism or Communism is the logical and desirable alternative to the failures of both capitalist markets and the welfare state. However, they do not provide any explanation as to how this is to be achieved, except that it needs to be done revolutionarily, rather than gradually and involves the overthrowing of the existing democratic governments. This ideology has never attracted much upkeep in Britain, making its political potential limited here.Marxists believe that the welfare state uses taxes paid by everyone to provide services and to foster the illusion that the state is altruistic and redistributiove, whereas in actual fact the stae is preserving and reinforcing certain norms and structural relationships.Ginsburg (1979) argued that institutions of welfare operated within British society to control and suppress people as well as to provide for them arguing that the social security system in practice stigmatized claimants and forced them into low waged employment. This criticism of the British welfare state comes from a Marxist perspective.The strength of the Marxist critique of the welfare within Capitalism is its ability to demonstrate the contradictory nature of social policy as providing social control and social protection at the same time.In 1998, New labour developed a third way, Blair argued that both the right wing pro- market approaches and the old lefts support from state monopolistic services should be rejected in favour of a new (third way) which would be located between the state and the market.The new labour government was not interested in whether services were best provided by the state (the old, Fabian, left) or by the market (the right) instead it was looking to find the most effective way to meet social needs which was a practical judgement based on empirical evidence of effectiveness.Hills (1997) has pointed out that some benefits, such as child benefit, state pension and unemployment benefit for some, go to people unswayed by means- testing, and argues that further means- testing would allow spending to be better targeted. Some have argued that settlement of universal benefits would free up sizeable sums of money, which could then be spent on those that need it the most, which would mean for Ne w Labour that they could go a little further to achieve its targeted with regards to child poverty. Eliminating Universal benefits would mean a substantial reduction in the overall cost of welfare spending, meaning the government could put more money into other areas such as the National Health Service.Social Security is the largest element of public expenditure, greater than both health and education, and accounts for 11 per cent of gross domestic product (Alcock, 2003).Social Security is an important aspect of our society, through state intervention individuals are provided with a basic standard of living, and unbroken out of absolute poverty. An interesting Marxist theory of the purpose of the welfare state states that the state maintains a reserve army of labour , through which a certain portion of society are kept out of work , but may be asked to join the labour force when needed. By providing these people with benefits (the unemployed, disabled and lone parents) the welfare state is serving capitalism by maintaining these groups who can be called upon at short notice.Marxists would argue that welfare constitutes social control and polices the state. They claim that the unemployed and other members of the reserve army of labour are treated harshly, to remind others of the consequences of not working.Lowe(1999) points out that the history of postwar social security was riddled with contradictions. The promise of the Beveridge report was to realize the new ideal of social security, through a alter system of state relief without resort to the unpopular means- test, aroused immense popular enthusiasm and lay at the heart of the new values and perspectives upon which the new welfare state was initially built. Yet within ten years the social security system was no longer popular. The means test did not wither away and the system started to become so complex that it became self defeating.Social Security has both positive and negative connotations, in practice it can be seen as a benefit and by others a cost (Alcock, 2003).